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Journal of Environmental Accounting and Management 14(4) (2026) 553--564 | DOI:10.5890/JEAM.2026.12.001

Yihong Liu$^{1}$, Jinpu Chen$^{1,2}$, Xiao Li$^{1}$, Muhammad Yasin Gill$^{1}$, Shazia Qadeer$^{3}$, Ying Fan$^{4}$, Zhi Li$^{1}$, Guoqian Chen$^{1,5}$

$^{1}$ Laboratory of Systems Ecology and Sustainability Science, Department of Mechanics, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China

$^{2}$ Institute for Advanced Study in Nuclear Energy & Safety, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China

$^{3}$ Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science & Technology, Islamabad, 75300, Pakistan

$^{4}$ State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China

$^{5}$ Key Laboratory of River Basin Digital Twinning of Ministry of Water Resources, National Observation and Research Station of Coastal Ecological Environments in Macao, Macau Environmental Research Institute, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau SAR 999078, China

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Abstract

Nickel ore has emerged as a strategic mineral for decarbonizing the global economy through transport electrification. However, prevailing assessments overlook intricate interdependencies that underpin global nickel supply chains. Here, we introduce Environmental Extended Input-Output Analysis (EEIOA) to construct a consumption-based framework for tracing nickel flows at regional and sectoral resolution in 2022, and evaluate the supply security via self-sufficiency rates. Our findings reveal a profound geographical asymmetry between extraction and final use, inducing structurally different trade patterns. Physical trade exhibits a concentration and transfers nickel ores from mining areas to manufacturing hubs, while embodied trade demonstrates a decentration pattern. This is driven by the disparity of final use, characterized by a stark contrast between China and Indonesia, the top two users. The final use of China is structurally locked into investment-led demand and dependent on the construction sector, contributing 84.8% of nickel utility in fixed capital formation. Despite domestic extraction, China faces a structural vulnerability with a self-sufficiency rate of only 24.9% due to the greatest domestic demand. Conversely, Indonesia's nickel utility is primarily consumed by households and supported by transportation and public service sectors, with a self-sufficiency rate of 97.9%. These results provide a systemic insight into vulnerabilities of nickel supply chains and an analytical benchmark for fairness and security in resource governance.

Acknowledgments

The research is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant nos. 12372379).

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